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Table 1 Examples of effects of gut microbes on drugs

From: PharmacoMicrobiomics or how bugs modulate drugs: an educational initiative to explore the effects of human microbiome on drugs

CID

Drug

Body Site

Microbial effects

NCBI PMID

64982

Baicalin [Potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and liver tonic]

Gut

Gut microbes hydrolyze baicalin and enhance its absorption. Absence of gut microbiota resulted in lower levels of baicalin in plasma following oral administration [8].

11197087

2724385

Digoxin [Cardiac glycoside]

Gut

Eubacterium lentum is responsible for the difference in metabolite concentration of digoxin between North Americans and Southern Indians [9]

2759492

1794427

Chlorogenic acid [Antioxidant]

Gut

Variation in gut microbiome alters chlorogenic acid metabolism [10].

12771329

1983

Acetaminophen [Analgesic and antipyretic]

Gut

Acetaminophen toxicity is associated with elevated levels of p-cresol produced by some bacterial communities [4].

19667173

9064

(+)- catechin and (-)-epichatechins [Anti-oxidants]

Gut

In germ-free rats, (+)-catechins and (-)-epicatechins resulted in increase in the levels of liver CYP450 2C11, and (+) catechins caused elevation in the specific activity of liver UGT-Chloramphenicol [11].

12659723

5734

Zonisamide [Anticonvulsant]

Gut

Gut microbiota reduce zonisamide into 2-sulfomoyacetylphenol. Levels of 2-sulfomoyacetylphenol reportedly increased upon re-inoculation of germ-free rats with gut microbiota [12]

9231340