Fig. 4

Average time (in ms; lower is better) required to create a container by several container systems. The compared container systems are: Docker (version: 19.03.6), podman (version: 1.6.2), Singularity (version: 3.7.0), udocker (version: 1.1.4), LPMX (version: alpha-1.6.3). The host was equipped with an Intel i7-8750H processors @2.2GHz (6 cores and 12 threads) and 32 GB RAM memory. The virtual machine was version 6.1. The virtualized host was Ubuntu 18.04.5 LTS (Bionic Beaver). The memory size was 1024 MB. The containerized Guest OS was also Ubuntu 18.04 LTS (Bionic Beaver) downloaded from DockerHub by using the tag Ubuntu:18.04. A shell script was executed in the virtualized host OS to evaluate the performance. The script creates and then immediately destroys the container and measures time cost. The time command measures the resource usage of a given running command and outputs the elapsed real time between invocation and termination, the user CPU time, and the system CPU time. We summed the user and the system CPU times to obtain the total time required to run the userspace logic code and execute the kernel space system calls during the run